For centuries
coal has been
utilized as a
source of
energy in
several
applications
such as
electricity
generation and
steel
production as
the more
seasoned and
common
examples. The
history of coal
mining in
Queensland
dates back to
the 19th
century. The
human workforce
prior to
mechanization
and
technological
advancement was
at the
forefront and
certainly
considered the
backbone of the
coal industry.
In literal
terms, their
exposure to
coal dust was
inevitable
hence it was
just a matter
of how much and
for how long
coal mine
workers were
susceptible to
inhalable and
respirable coal
dust. The
trajectory of
coal mining
legislation in
Queensland was
at every stage
solution-driven
and as a
mitigatory
measure to
reduce the
chronic effects
of coal dust on
coal mine
workers.
Eventually,
legislation and
arbitration
caught up and
changed the
attitudes of
responsible
authorities to
the scourge of
coal dust. The
article will
evaluate
documented
evidence of the
effects of coal
dust to
mineworkers
whilst
augmenting with
in-depth
analysis of the
origins of coal
balanced with
history of
legislative
laws and coal
mining in
Queensland.
In
the
beginning…
Queensland
coal deposits
related to
geology can be
traced back to
coal-bearing
formations of
the Tertiary,
Cretaceous,
Jurassic,
Triassic and
Permian eras.
Records show
that Mesozoic
measures of the
Southern and
Central
districts
supplied the
bulk of the
output in the
past owing to
geographical
advantage
although the
Permian
formations of
the Central
district
harbour
Queensland’s
vast wealth in
coal.
Geographically,
coal measures
extend from the
south-eastern
corner of the
State westwards
and also
northwards
through
practically the
whole of the
eastern portion
of Queensland.
The main basin
of Permian
rocks, where
the most
valuable
deposits lie,
occurs in
Central
Queensland on
the Bowen,
Isaacs,
Mackenzie and
Dawson Rivers.
Elsewhere, coal
occurs in small
isolated basins
at Blair Athol,
Mackay, Mt
Mulligan and
Little River
with deposits
also in the
basal beds of
artesian basin
sequence at
Oxley Creek,
Selma and
Alpha.
Prospecting
developments
have not
exhausted the
potential of
identifying the
total reserves
in addition to
thousands of
square miles in
undeveloped
outcrops which
shows how rich
the coal
industry is in
Queensland
moving into the
future.
Coal
is formed from
ancient plant
material
accumulated in
subsurface
environments,
which prevents
the complete
decay of
organic matter.
The formation
occurs by the
reduction of
plant debris to
simple forms
such as pure
carbon and
simple
hydrocarbons.
Initially, peat
is formed which
is not a good
fuel, owing to
poor burning
and increased
smoke release.
Over time with
sedimentation
due to
lithostatic
pressure and
heat, peat
converts to
lignite or
brown coal.
Repeated
compaction then
converts
lignite to
anthracite.
Anthracite
contains the
highest amount
of pure carbon
and heating
value among all
forms of coal.
Bituminous
coals are often
subdivided on
the basis of
their heating
value as low,
medium and high
volatile and
sub-bituminous
coals. In
matured coals
such anthracite
and bituminous
types, aromatic
rings occupy
80-85% of the
coal molecular
structure and
the remaining
is constituted
by hydroxyl
groups,
nitrogen and
sulphur
compounds.
Coal
mining
commences
The
earliest record
of coal
production in
Queensland was
in 1860 from
the Ipswich
field and types
of coal in
Queensland
classified in
order of their
rank
include:
- Semi-anthracite in the Baralaba and Bluff areas
- Low volatile bituminous in the Bowen River, Mackenzie River areas
- Medium volatile bituminous in the Burrum, Styx, Mt Mulligan, Blair Athol, Callide and Ipswich areas
- High volatile bituminous in the Rosewood-Walloon, Darling Downs and Mulgeldie areas
- Sub-bituminous in the Waterpart Creek, Nagoorin Ubobo areas.
The
grant of titles
and regulation
of coal mining
in Queensland
was initially
governed by the
consolidated
Mining Act of
1898 with coal
mining
provisions
related to
metalliferous
mining. Almost
three decades
later, 1925 saw
the enaction of
the special act
called The Coal
Mining Act of
1925. Several
amendments to
it culminated
into the most
significant in
1947 which
focused on
health and
safety
provisions. The
last known
amendment is
recorded in
1964. As an
interesting
aside, the
black lung was
actually first
identified in
European coal
miners in the
16th Century!
Fast forward to
1999, the Coal
Mining Safety
and Health Act
of 1999 was
implemented to
regulate the
operation of
coal mines, to
protect the
safety and
health of
persons at coal
mines and
persons who may
be affected by
coal mining
operations, and
for other
purposes. Most
recently the
Coal Mining
Safety and
Health
Regulation of
2017 was
implemented as
subordinate
legislation
under the Coal
Mining Safety
and Health Act
of 1999.
The
danger of
respirable
dust
All
mining has the
potential to be
acutely
dangerous, with
factors such as
collisions,
cave-ins, and
explosions
being very
obvious
hazards. The
impact on
health –
although as we
note having
been observed
for hundreds of
years, has been
better
understood over
the last 50-60
years – but
only now is
management
catching up to
the knowledge
about the
risks. Coal
quality and
mineral
composition as
determined by
rank affect the
mass of
respirable coal
dust, which
determines the
development of
pneumoconiosis.
The methods of
mining and dust
control may
cause
variations in
the prevalence
of
pneumoconiosis.
In Queensland,
open cast coal
mining is more
predominant
than
underground
mining.
Diseases such
as chronic
obstructive
pulmonary
disease, coal
workers’
pneumoconiosis,
miners’
asthma,
legionellosis,
silicosis and
all-encompassing
coal mine dust
lung disease
are inevitable
on overexposure
to coal mine
dust.
Achieving
acceptable risk
of coal dust
involves
implementing
management and
operating
systems whereas
if the risk is
deemed
unacceptable
action should
be taken to
reduce the
risk. Given the
evidence of
acute,
accelerated and
chronic
pneumoconiosis
and other
pulmonary
conditions
clearly coal
(and the
associated
silica) dust is
extremely
dangerous –
it is killing
people. There
is, therefore,
the need to
mitigate and if
possible
complete
suppression of
fugitive coal
dust in coal
mining
operations. An
area of
expertise and
delivery that
Global Road
Technology
(GRT) focuses
on involves
tailor-made
coal dust
suppression
using state of
the art and
well-researched
products to
control coal
dust. Our
second follow
up article will
highlight the
products GRT
has to offer.
REFERENCES
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- Cohen, R.A. 2016. Resurgent coal mine dust lung disease: wave of the future or a relic of the past? Occup Environ Med. 73:11. 715-718.
- Davies, M. 2002. Bibliography of the Mining History of Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. University of Western Australia. National Library of Australia.
- Dunne, E.F. 1950. Brief History of the Coal Mining Industry in Queensland. The Historical Society of Queensland. 313-340.
- Finocchiaro, C., Lark, A., Keating, M., Ugoni, A., Abramson, M. 1997. Does occupational exposure to brown coal dust cause a decline in lung function? Occup Environ Med. 54. 642-645.
- Kinnear, P. 2001. The Politics of Coal Dust: Industrial Campaigns for the Regulation of Dust Disease in Australian Coal Mining 1939-49. Labour History. 80. 65-82.
- Queensland Government. 2020. Coal Mining Safety and Health Act 1999.
- Queensland Government. 2017. Coal Mining Safety and Health Regulation 2017.
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- Rawi, M.R., and Kohli, S. 2018. Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Gasification, Indian Institute of Technology.
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- Whitmore, R.L. 1981. Coal in Queensland: The First Fifty Years. A History of Early Coal Mining in Queensland. University of Queensland Press. St Lucia.